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7 September 1999 | Volume 131 Issue 5 | Pages 363-375
Purpose: To review epidemiologic studies on the association between homocyst(e)ine level and risk for cardiovascular disease and the potential benefits of homocysteine-decreasing therapies.
Data Sources: Computerized and manual searches of the literature on total homocysteine levels and cardiovascular disease.
Study Selection: Prospective studies and major retrospective epidemiologic studies evaluating the association between homocyst(e)ine levels and cardiovascular disease and the association between blood levels or dietary intake of folate, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 and cardiovascular disease.
Data Extraction: Relevant data on patient population, plasma homocyst(e)ine levels, duration of follow-up, and main results were extracted from studies that met the inclusion criteria.
Data Synthesis: The designs and results of studies included in this review are summarized. A formal meta-analysis was not performed because the studies were heterogeneous in method and design.
Conclusions: Results of epidemiologic studies suggest that moderately elevated plasma or serum homocyst(e)ine levels are prevalent in the general population and are associated with an increased risk for cardiovascular disease, independent of classic cardiovascular risk factors. Simple, inexpensive, nontoxic therapy with folic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 reduces plasma homocyst(e)ine levels. Although the association between homocyst(e)ine levels and cardiovascular disease is generally strong and biologically plausible, the data from the prospective studies are less consistent. In addition, epidemiologic observations of an association between hyperhomocyst(e)inemia and cardiovascular risk do not prove the existence of a causal relation. Therefore, the effectiveness of folate, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 in reducing cardiovascular morbidity and mortality requires rigorous testing in randomized clinical trials. Several such trials are under way; their results may greatly affect cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, given the simplicity and low cost of vitamin therapy.
Author and Article Information
From McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; Clinical Research Institute of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; and Royal Perth Hospital, Perth, Western Australia.
Grant Support: Dr. Eikelboom is the recipient of a Medical Research Fellowship from the Haematology Society of Australia and the University of Western Australia. Dr. Yusuf is the recipient of a Medical Research Council of Canada Career Scientist Award and holds a Heart and Stroke Foundation of Ontario research chair.
Requests for Reprints: Eva Lonn, MD, Preventive Cardiology and Therapeutics Program, McMaster University, HGH, McMaster Clinic, 237 Barton Street East, Hamilton, Ontario L8L 2X2, Canada.
Current Author Addresses: Drs. Eikelboom, Lonn, and Yusuf: Preventive Cardiology and Therapeutics Program, McMaster University, HGH, McMaster Clinic, 237 Barton Street East, Hamilton, Ontario L8L 2X2, Canada.
Dr. Genest: Clinical Research Institute of Montreal, 110 avenue des Pins ouest, Montreal, Quebec H2W 1R7, Canada.
Dr. Hankey: Department of Neurology, Royal Perth Hospital, Wellington Street, Perth 6001, Australia. REVIEW
Homocyst(e)ine and Cardiovascular Disease: A Critical Review of the Epidemiologic Evidence
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G. R. Steenge, P. Verhoef, and M. B. Katan Betaine Supplementation Lowers Plasma Homocysteine in Healthy Men and Women J. Nutr., May 1, 2003; 133(5): 1291 - 1295. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. E. Charlson and O. W. Isom Care after Coronary-Artery Bypass Surgery N. Engl. J. Med., April 10, 2003; 348(15): 1456 - 1463. [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. S. Vasan, A. Beiser, R. B. D'Agostino, D. Levy, J. Selhub, P. F. Jacques, I. H. Rosenberg, and P. W. F. Wilson Plasma Homocysteine and Risk for Congestive Heart Failure in Adults Without Prior Myocardial Infarction JAMA, March 12, 2003; 289(10): 1251 - 1257. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 J. Eikelboom Homocysteine lowering treatment improved outcomes after percutaneous coronary intervention Evid. Based Med., March 1, 2003; 8(2): 48 - 48. [Full Text] [PDF]
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B. J Venn, T. J Green, R. Moser, and J. I Mann Comparison of the effect of low-dose supplementation with L-5-methyltetrahydrofolate or folic acid on plasma homocysteine: a randomized placebo-controlled study Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, March 1, 2003; 77(3): 658 - 662. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. C. Rampersaud, G. P.A. Kauwell, and L. B. Bailey Folate: A Key to Optimizing Health and Reducing Disease Risk in the Elderly J. Am. Coll. Nutr., February 1, 2003; 22(1): 1 - 8. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. Hung, J. P Beilby, M. W Knuiman, and M. Divitini Folate and vitamin B-12 and risk of fatal cardiovascular disease: cohort study from Busselton, Western Australia BMJ, January 18, 2003; 326(7381): 131 - 131. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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B. Bayes, M. C. Pastor, J. Bonal, J. Junca, J. M. Hernandez, N. Riutort, A. Foraster, and R. Romero Homocysteine, C-reactive protein, lipid peroxidation and mortality in haemodialysis patients Nephrol. Dial. Transplant., January 1, 2003; 18(1): 106 - 112. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. D. Rogers, A. Sanchez-Saffon, A. B. Frol, and R. Diaz-Arrastia Elevated Plasma Homocysteine Levels in Patients Treated With Levodopa: Association With Vascular Disease Arch Neurol, January 1, 2003; 60(1): 59 - 64. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. V. Bor, H. Refsum, M. R. Bisp, O. Bleie, J. Schneede, J. E. Nordrehaug, P. M. Ueland, O. K. Nygard, and E. Nexo Plasma Vitamin B6 Vitamers before and after Oral Vitamin B6 Treatment: A Randomized Placebo-controlled Study Clin. Chem., January 1, 2003; 49(1): 155 - 161. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Dayal, K. L. Brown, C. J. Weydert, L. W. Oberley, E. Arning, T. Bottiglieri, F. M. Faraci, and S. R. Lentz Deficiency of Glutathione Peroxidase-1 Sensitizes Hyperhomocysteinemic Mice to Endothelial Dysfunction Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., December 1, 2002; 22(12): 1996 - 2002. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. D. Bushnell and L. B. Goldstein Homocysteine testing in patients with acute ischemic stroke Neurology, November 26, 2002; 59(10): 1541 - 1546. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. S Wald, M. Law, and J. K Morris Homocysteine and cardiovascular disease: evidence on causality from a meta-analysis BMJ, November 23, 2002; 325(7374): 1202 - 1206. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 G. L. Baumbach, C. D. Sigmund, T. Bottiglieri, and S. R. Lentz Structure of Cerebral Arterioles in Cystathionine {beta}-Synthase-Deficient Mice Circ. Res., November 15, 2002; 91(10): 931 - 937. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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U. Schwab, A. Torronen, L. Toppinen, G. Alfthan, M. Saarinen, A. Aro, and M. Uusitupa Betaine supplementation decreases plasma homocysteine concentrations but does not affect body weight, body composition, or resting energy expenditure in human subjects Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, November 1, 2002; 76(5): 961 - 967. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M.B. Andresdottir, G. Sigurdsson, H. Sigvaldason, and V. Gudnason Fifteen percent of myocardial infarctions and coronary revascularizations explained by family history unrelated to conventional risk factors. The Reykjavik Cohort Study Eur. Heart J., November 1, 2002; 23(21): 1655 - 1663. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Klerk, P. Verhoef, R. Clarke, H. J. Blom, F. J. Kok, E. G. Schouten, and and the MTHFR Studies Collaboration Group MTHFR 677C->T Polymorphism and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease: A Meta-analysis JAMA, October 23, 2002; 288(16): 2023 - 2031. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. Ducloux, G. Motte, N. U. Nguyen, A. Abdelfatah, R. Gibey, and J.-M. Chalopin Homocysteine, nutritional status and insulin in renal transplant recipients Nephrol. Dial. Transplant., September 1, 2002; 17(9): 1674 - 1677. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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N. Li, F.-X. Yi, E. Rute, D. X. Zhang, G. R. Slocum, and A.-P. Zou Effects of homocysteine on intracellular nitric oxide and superoxide levels in the renal arterial endothelium Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, September 1, 2002; 283(3): H1237 - H1243. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C.-H. Yen and Y.-T. Lau Vascular Responses in Male and Female Hypertensive Rats With Hyperhomocysteinemia Hypertension, September 1, 2002; 40(3): 322 - 328. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. McNulty, M. C McKinley, B. Wilson, J. McPartlin, J. Strain, D. G Weir, and J. M Scott Impaired functioning of thermolabile methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase is dependent on riboflavin status: implications for riboflavin requirements Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, August 1, 2002; 76(2): 436 - 441. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. K. Majors, S. Sengupta, B. Willard, M. T. Kinter, R. E. Pyeritz, and D. W. Jacobsen Homocysteine Binds to Human Plasma Fibronectin and Inhibits Its Interaction With Fibrin Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., August 1, 2002; 22(8): 1354 - 1359. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 E. Nurk, G. S. Tell, S. E. Vollset, O. Nygard, H. Refsum, and P. M. Ueland Plasma Total Homocysteine and Hospitalizations for Cardiovascular Disease: The Hordaland Homocysteine Study Arch Intern Med, June 24, 2002; 162(12): 1374 - 1381. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. M. Fairfield and R. H. Fletcher Vitamins for Chronic Disease Prevention in Adults: Scientific Review JAMA, June 19, 2002; 287(23): 3116 - 3126. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J.D. Kark, R. Sinnreich, I.H. Rosenberg, P.F. Jacques, and J. Selhub Plasma Homocysteine and Parental Myocardial Infarction in Young Adults in Jerusalem Circulation, June 11, 2002; 105(23): 2725 - 2729. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. M. Albert, J. Ma, N. Rifai, M. J. Stampfer, and P. M. Ridker Prospective Study of C-Reactive Protein, Homocysteine, and Plasma Lipid Levels as Predictors of Sudden Cardiac Death Circulation, June 4, 2002; 105(22): 2595 - 2599. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Acevedo, G. L. Pearce, K. Kottke-Marchant, and D. L. Sprecher Elevated Fibrinogen and Homocysteine Levels Enhance the Risk of Mortality in Patients From a High-Risk Preventive Cardiology Clinic Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., June 1, 2002; 22(6): 1042 - 1045. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 A. E. van Ede, R. F. J. M. Laan, H. J. Blom, G. H. J. Boers, C. J. Haagsma, C. M. G. Thomas, T. M. de Boo, and L. B. A. van de Putte Homocysteine and folate status in methotrexate-treated patients with rheumatoid arthritis Rheumatology, June 1, 2002; 41(6): 658 - 665. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 S. Skoupy, M. Fodinger, M. Veitl, A. Perschl, H. Puttinger, C. Rohrer, K. Schindler, A. Vychytil, W. H. Horl, and G. Sunder-Plassmann Riboflavin Is a Determinant of Total Homocysteine Plasma Concentrations in End-Stage Renal Disease Patients J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., May 1, 2002; 13(5): 1331 - 1337. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 C. Niyikiza, S. D. Baker, D. E. Seitz, J. M. Walling, K. Nelson, J. J. Rusthoven, S. P. Stabler, P. Paoletti, A. H. Calvert, and R. H. Allen Homocysteine and Methylmalonic Acid: Markers to Predict and Avoid Toxicity from Pemetrexed Therapy Mol. Cancer Ther., May 1, 2002; 1(7): 545 - 552. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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